Poland Withered The Mongol Invasion At A Great Cost

Wrocław, the largest gord in Silesia, rivalling Krakow in terms of importance and wealth, was burning. The fire was no accident. It was started by the crew of the ducal castle, fearing that the abandoned houses would be used by the approaching Mongols. The hostile army was preceded by a rumour of its ferocity and cruelty.

Few Wrocław residents took refuge behind the castle walls, most of them deserted. Duke Henry II the Pious withdrew to the west – to Legnica, which was famous as an impregnable fortress. He waited for the relief promised by his Czech and German neighbours. He prudently sent his mother, wife and children back to the border town of Krosno Odrzańskie. As the head of the family and a claimant to power over all of Poland, he could not and did not want to flee himself. He drew reinforcements from wherever he could, even miners from the Sudeten gold mines were mobilized.

A modest representation of knightly orders came to the call. For the Knights of St John, the Teutonic Knights and the Knights Templar, shedding blood in defence of Christianity was a duty. The knights from Lesser Poland had already experienced the power of the Asiatic nomads firsthand, with only a handful of survivors reaching Silesia. Henry was also joined by a relative, Duke of Opole Mieszko II the Fat. He was the only one who could boast of success: his men crushed a Tartar detachment trying to cross the Oder.

The invasion fell on Poland at a fatal moment. Practiced for a century, the custom of assigning a duchy to every male member of the Piast family led to political fragmentation. Blood ties did not induce the dynasts to cooperate; on the contrary, plots, assassinations and kidnappings were the order of the day. Paradoxically, the more violently they fought for power, the more it slipped out of their hands. The winners were the Church, magnates and municipal authorities to whom the Piasts generously paid for their loyalty and support with privileges.

In 1241, Henry, controlling Silesia and the major part of Lesser Poland and Greater Poland for six years actually and for three years de jure, was undoubtedly the most powerful Polish ruler. He intended to crown himself king, and there were many indications that he would soon achieve that goal.

Now, however, he faced a challenge beyond his capabilities. Given the speed of the enemy’s action, it was too late for any effective diplomatic action. Europe had already forgotten about the Huns and Avars, the nomads of the Asian steppes who were instrumental in the downfall of the Roman Empire. Emperor Frederick II’s conflict with Pope Gregory IX was reaching its zenith, effectively distracting attention from the drama unfolding in the east of the continent.

In the first half of the 13th century, the Mongol tribes, united by Genghis Khan, created the largest land empire in history, stretching from Vietnam to Rus’. The Asian warriors were feared and seen as horsemen of the Apocalypse. Poland’s geographical location made it a gateway through which the invaders tried to penetrate deep into Europe.

Nobody knew how to fight the Tatars. The heavy-armed knights proved helpless against a mobile, fast-moving enemy, who had mastered the art of reconnaissance and diversion, dividing and combining forces before the decisive clash. The Mongols cut those who tried to resist to the ground, keen to use tricks, their favourite being the fake escape.

Genghis Khan’s grandson Batu Khan was aware of the close ties between the local rulers when planning his invasion of Central Europe. Therefore, although he chose the kingdom of Hungary as the main target of his attack, he did not intend to spare Bohemia and Poland.

The first reconnaissance took place immediately after the capture of Kyiv, in December 1240. The Tatar conquerors reached Zawichost on the Vistula and Drohiczyn in Podlasie as well as approached Racibórz, which meant that the route to Moravia had already been recognised. It was a complete surprise, because winter was not a time of war in Poland.

Even in such a moment the Piasts were unable to act united. The 15-year-old Duke of Sandomierz Bolesław V the Chaste and his mother, who ruled on his behalf, fled to Hungary, leaving the local capital and subjects to their own devices. At the battle of Wielki Tursk, the invaders were confronted by knights from Lesser Poland. However, the latter were fooled by a fake escape, broke the formation and were ambushed.

In March 1241, the army of Baidar crossed the Vistula heading for Krakow. Voivode Włodzimierz and Castellan Klemens, who tried to stop it, were killed in the lost battle of Chmielnik. The victorious Mongols let Krakow go up in smoke, having first plundered it to the ground. They did not try to seize Wawel Castle and they had a similar policy as regards other strongly fortified gords: probably Batu Khan forbade them to waste time on sieges. They achieved their goal of terrorizing the country. One unit, prowling in the areas of Łęczyca and Kuyavia, was enough to deprive the Mazovian Piasts of the will to fight.

Henry of Silesia was also reluctant to go into the field. He counted on the help of his brother-in-law, the King of Bohemia. Although Wenceslas I crossed the border with his knights, he ordered a stop at Świny, one day’s journey from Legnica, and waited for events to develop. The prince was left to his own devices. As he was leaving Legnica, a stone fell from the top of the tower of the church of the Virgin Mary, where a mass for a victory had been celebrated earlier, and almost hit him on the head. It was considered a bad omen.

The decisive clash took place on 9 April 1241 on the plain southeast of the city. Henry divided his small army into four troops, which, according to the custom of the time, joined the battle one by one.

The Tatars were several times more numerous, probably led by Baidar and Orda, Batu Khan’s brother. The archers wreaked havoc on the Christian ranks, but the outcome of the battle was again decided by a trick.

"There was in their (Mongol) army among other banners one of enormous size. (...) at the top of its spar, there was a figure of a very ugly and monstrous head with a beard, so when the Tartars moved back two miles or so and started to flee, the ensign carrying the banner started to wave the head with all his might, and immediately some thick vapour burst out of it, smoke and a wind so stinky that when this deadly smell spread among the troops, the Poles, fainting and barely alive, stopped fighting and became unable to fight."

- This is an excerpt from Jan Długosz’s account, whose chronicle is the major source of information we have about the battle of Legnica.

The Opole squad of Mieszko II the Fat was the first to panic. Seeing his 21-year-old cousin fleeing, Henryk said: "A great misfortune has come upon us" and he moved on the enemy with his troop. Those were his last words.

The assistant knights did not manage to carry the wounded leader out of the battlefield. Apparently, he was still alive when the enemy fighters pulled him aside and cut off his head (according to another version, the prince was executed only after the battle).

The Mongols showed Henry’s head on a spear to the defenders of Legnica, trying to make them surrender – unsuccessfully. The gruesome trophy was then sent to Batu Khan’s camp. Henry’s wife, Anna, recognized the body, stripped of armour and clothing and found on the battlefield by a distinctive mark: the duke had six toes on his left foot.

As planned, the Tartars ravaged Moravia in addition to Silesia, even venturing into Lusatia. Two days after the battle of Legnica, their main army crushed the Hungarians. By the end of the year, the Asians were attacking Croatia and Bulgaria. Western Europe was saved by the fact that Batu Khan, on hearing of the death of his uncle and superior Ogodei, hastened back to Asia to claim his share of the inheritance. However, the threat was not over.

Two further invasions in 1259/1260 and 1287/1288 again ravaged southern Poland. The Piasts managed to avoid the fate of the rulers of Rus’, who became vassals of the Mongols, paid them regular tribute and had to take part in plundering expeditions of the khans.

The chance to unite the state under the Silesian Piasts was lost at Legnica. Before his death, Henry managed to produce sons whose political talents did not match his. The duchy, torn apart by disputes between heirs, was subject to further divisions and Germanization. The history of Krakow and Wrocław began to diverge.

Silesia was absorbed by Bohemia and later by Prussia. It returned to Poland only in 1945, as a result of the Second World War unleashed by the Germans. Duke Henry’s headless body was buried in the church of St Francis in Wrocław, which he founded. A Benedictine monastery was built at the place of his death near Legnica. Efforts for the beatification of the duke are ongoing.

The empire created by Genghis Khan disintegrated as quickly as it had been created. However, the Tatars, who had converted to Islam and settled in the Crimea, remained the bane of their neighbours. At the behest of the Turkish sultan, and often on their own initiative, they invaded the south-eastern territories of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.

The Poles, however, learned to cope with the steppe robbers. Instead of plentiful loot and captives, later sold at slave markets, the Tatars more and more often returned home injured and empty-handed (or did not return at all). The 1698 invasion, which ended with the battle of Pidhaitsi, proved to be the last. Poland and Europe emerged relatively unscathed from their confrontation with that aggressive vanguard of the Asian-Muslim civilization.

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Silk Road Dig Sites Revealed Impressive Finds

A Chinese-Uzbek archaeological team has discovered a remarkable 3,000-year-old city along the Silk Road that is rich with artifacts, providing new insights into urban development during the early Iron Age in Central Asia.

Originally discovered in 1969, the expansive Bandikhan II site, covering 107,639 square feet, is located in the Bandikhan oasis. The Surxondaryo region in southern Uzbekistan is known as an archaeological treasure trove, containing multiple ancient settlement mounds.

It was only recently, in 2023, that a team began excavations at Bandikhan II, which served as a crucial hub on the legendary Silk Road.

During the excavation, archaeologists uncovered remnants of an eastern wall, numerous structures, and interconnected rooms, along with a wealth of artifacts. These findings enabled researchers to identify the city as belonging to the Yaz culture, further enhancing our understanding of their role within ancient Bactria, according to TV Brics.

Though a section of this major urban center of the ancient Bactrian kingdom has been excavated thus far, the findings are providing key evidence "for understanding the form of early Iron Age city-states in southern Central Asia and the evolution of urban layouts from Bronze Age to the early Iron Age," as per Global Times.

So far, archaeologists have explored only 3,229 square feet of the 107,639-square-foot site in the eastern section of the ancient city. However, they have confirmed that it is the largest and best-preserved settlement in the Bandikhan oasis, with foundations dating back to the early Iron Age. Researchers have begun to understand the city’s layout and how it was constructed and used during that time.

The well-preserved eastern wall features a trapezoidal cross-section, demonstrating the construction techniques employed. Inside the city, they found a detailed snapshot of daily life, including five interconnected rooms. One of these rooms was used for sleeping and contained a niche where a lamp was placed, as reported by Heritage Daily. This conclusion was drawn from the hardened interior, which indicated repeated burning and revealed the niche’s function.

Among the recovered artifacts were pottery pieces, including carinated jars, bowls, and flat-bottomed dishes. The forms and decorations of these items matched those found at other Yaz sites, such as Kuchuktepa and Yaztepa, clarifying who built this advanced urban center. While Bandikhan II shares structural similarities with these sites, it also displays notable differences, particularly in the absence of semicircular defense towers along its exterior walls.

An assortment of stone tools, including grinding slabs, mullers, pestles, and mortars, suggested that grain was processed on-site. Additionally, bronze knives and arrowheads were identified, along with seashells.

The initial excavations at this Silk Road city have yielded impressive findings, generating excitement for future digs as researchers plan to expand their work in upcoming seasons. This flourishing city, with its enduring legacy, continues to be uncovered.

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The Brief And Exciting Pirate Life Of Calico Jack

John Rackham, is popularly as Calico Jack Rackham, was a pirate operating in the Golden Age of Piracy during the early 1700s.

He was considered one of the most luminary pirates in history, including Edward "Blackbeard" Teach and Edward England, who have used colorful aliases. Calico Jack was most remembered for having two female pirate crew members: Anne Bonny and Mary Read, who were considered the fiercest members of his crew.

Unlike his contemporary Blackbeard, Calico Jack Rackham seemed to go out of his way to refrain from the typical barbarism of a pirate. His most noteworthy exploit involves returning a ship, intact and unharmed, to the unfortunate captain he had just robbed blind. In fact, this uncharacteristic restraint is Rackham's claim to fame; otherwise, he was a mostly small-time pirate who commanded a single, small sloop rather than an armada full of buccaneers.

Despite the superstition—that women bring bad luck on ships—that many sailors of his time shared, the most celebrated members of his crew were female pirates Anne Bonny and Mary Read.

As chance would have, the two women, both masquerading as men, met aboard Rackham's ship. Anne Bonny married a sailor called Jack Bonny, who was a rather useless sailor but took her out to Nassau, where she fell in love with a much more dashing Calico Jack.

Rackham gave his lover Anne Bonny, destined to become one of the greatest woman pirates of all time, her first taste of the sea. Mary Read joined a merchant ship, went out to the West Indies in the Caribbean, where the merchant ship was captured by Calico Jack.

Anne, who was married to Calico Jack, fell in love with Mary but found out she also was a woman disguised as a man. A devoted friendship bloomed between the two women, who eventually achieved notoriety in a daring, two-woman, pistol-and-cutlass defense of the ship against English privateers. So there was Calico Jack with the two women onboard who were by far the fiercest members of his crew.

Later in his pirate career, Calico Jack Rackham was sailing off the coast of Jamaica, where he was intercepted by Captain Jonathan Barnet, a privateer and pirate hunter who had been sent out to capture pirates. Calico Jack and his crew were all captured, sent to the capital of Jamaica, where a trial took place as his entire crew was tried for piracy. All the men were hanged, but the women got off because they both managed to get pregnant, and the authorities couldn't hang a woman with an unborn child because the child was innocent.

At some point after his death, the flag commonly associated with Calico Jack Rackham, depicting a skull above crossed swords on a black background, became the primary Jolly Roger of Hector Barbossa.

There were also reports of a rivalry between Calico Jack and that other great pirate of the same first name, Jack Sparrow, which were entirely unfounded—although it was easy to imagine a little friction between the two.

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Bizarre Puzzle Behind The Sunken Ship

After the British warship HMS Tyger ran aground on a coral reef near Garden Key, Florida, on 13 January 1742, even dumping its cannons overboard couldn’t set it free. Decades later, those same cannons helped archaeologists definitively identify the wreck.

The ship, which was on patrol as part of the War of Jenkins’ Ear between Britain and Spain, is 130 feet in length and represented 704 tons of patrol power, with 50 cannons scattered across three decks.

The 300-plus men on board sailed near Cuba and Jamaica as a show of force to the Spanish. That force lost its momentum when it hit the coral reefs of the Florida Keys, leading the crew to toss anchors and cannons overboard to no avail and forcing them to abandon the ship toward Garden Key, where they built shelter as the island’s first fortifications.

In 2024, the history of the HMS Tyger and Garden Key came back to life thanks to a positive identification of the ship. "Archaeological finds are exciting, but connecting those finds to the historical record helps us tell the stories of the people that came before us and the events they experienced," James Crutchfield, Dry Tortugas National Park manager, said in a statement. "This particular story is one of perseverance and survival."

The ship was initially discovered in 1993, but archaeologists from the park, the Submerged Resources Center, and the Southeast Archaeological Center used newly uncovered evidence — found when the site was surveyed in 2021 — to gain more details and make a positive identification of the ship.

The team found five cannons roughly 500 yards from the main wreck, and buried in the margins of old logbooks was a reference that described how the crew "lightened her forward" after initially running aground, briefly refloating the vessel before finding further trouble.

Archaeologists determined the cannons to be British six- and nine-pound cannons linked to the HMS Tyger. The findings were published in the International Journal of Nautical Archaeology.

As governed by international treaty, the HMS Tyger and related artifacts are sovereign property of the British government, and the site is protected under cultural resource laws.

"This discovery highlights the importance of preservation in place as future generations of archaeologists, armed with more advanced technologies and research tools, are able to reexamine sites and make new discoveries," Josh Marano, the maritime archaeologist who led the team making the discovery, said in a statement.

Believed to have first been built in 1647, the HMS Tyger was reconfigured multiple times before the 1741 iteration carried six 6-pounder guns on the quarter deck, 22 9-pounders on the upper deck, and 22 18-pounders on the gun deck, according to the National Park Service.

Those heavy guns were unloaded when the ship ran aground in 1742 in an effort to dislodge the ship. The crew moved everything else to the back of the ship. Historical records say poor weather helped worsen the situation, and the crew was ordered to abandon ship.

Archaeologists believe the HMS Tyger was the first of three British warships to sink off the Florida Keys. The HMS Fowey and HMS Looe wreck sites were previously located, but the HMS Tyger location had remained a mystery.

The 300 members of the crew were able to navigate the shallow waters to the nearby Garden Key, spending 66 days marooned there. The National Park Service stated the men crafted the first fortifications on the island, more than 100 years before Fort Jefferson took shape.

The crew was eager to leave the heat, mosquitoes, and lack of water, attempting to escape the deserted island by trying to salvage pieces of the wrecked ship and build new vessels. The crew even attempted an attack on a Spanish vessel, according to historical records. That attempt failed, and the crew decided to burn the HMS Tyger remains so the Spanish didn’t capture the guns.

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What Happened To The Two Groups Of Humans That Vanished 3,000 Years Ago?

There is a strange gap in the contents of a 5,000-year-old megalithic tomb outside Paris may explain not only a widespread neolithic population drop, but also who stepped in to repopulate the Paris Basin.

The Bury tomb, roughly 30 miles north of Paris, is a stone burial monument containing the remains of 300 people. Using a combination of DNA and demographics, researchers investigating the tomb believe they’ve found out why the Paris Basin suffered a dramatic population shift around 3100 B.C.E., and just who entered the region to take their place.

In a new study published in the journal Nature Ecology & Evolution, an international team of researchers link the Paris-region stone-age site to a massive continent-wide demographic crisis.

Prior to the mysterious population decline, megalithic tomb construction defined the wide-reaching area for over 1,000 years. While each region put its own cultural touches on funerary construction, the tombs at Bury were consistent, communal, and housed tens of thousands of burials over centuries. The Paris Basin featured an especially high concentration of such tombs, as did central Germany and southern Scandinavia.

According to the new research, construction of these tombs abruptly "ceased across continental northwestern Europe" at the end of the fourth millennium B.C.E. The break in the millennial burial tradition happened everywhere — and until now, the reason remained unknown.

The investigation of the Bury megalith revealed that it represented two distinct phases of burials — the first was from roughly 3200 to 3100 B.C.E., and the second began around 2900 B.C.E. The 200-year gap in which there were no burials coincided with a wave of population losses across northern Europe, a neolithic decline that researchers haven’t fully understood, but which contributed to a complete remaking of populations in the area.

By examining DNA evidence from 132 individuals found in Bury, the team discovered that the two distinct historical phases were unrelated. Phase one individuals had a genetic diversity extending well beyond the Paris Basin, tied to farming populations across the continent. Phase two burials, on the other hand, were substantially more homogeneous, with over 80 percent of the group’s ancestry traced to neolithic Iberia (what is now Spain and southern France).

The burial styles were even different, with phase one burials featuring multi-generational families and evidence that women married into the community from the outside, while phase two burials included smaller families and unrelated individuals buried next to each other. With distinctly different Y chromosome lineages in the second phase, this wasn’t a gradual cultural shift, but a dramatic population turnover.

Paired with pollen data (which shows forests were regrowing during the gap) and a shift in farming practices after the gap, the turnover signals the abandonment of grazing lands and fields, implying that settlements were vacant. The pattern that matches the aftermath of the Justinian Plague and the Black Death.

The authors argue that the 3100 B.C.E. decline was geographically widespread, creating a demographic vacuum across northwestern Europe that opened the door for neighboring populations to fill in the void. In Scandinavia, steppe pastoralists replaced local farmers entirely. In the Paris Basin, Iberian farmers moved into the then-empty spaces.

"We may thus consider the possibility that both the Iberian northward migration and the expansion from the steppe were related responses to the Neolithic decline," the authors wrote, "as widespread demographic contraction would have created a vacuum that neighboring groups could expand into."

The first community that defined the Paris Basin was essentially erased, but clues to what caused the erasure were found in the Bury tomb. Researchers discovered ancient pathogens — including the plague and louse-borne relapsing fever — in the remains.

Experts believe that infectious disease, environmental stress, and demographic contraction all led to the widespread demographic collapse. "These findings detail a population turnover at the end of the fourth millennium B.C.E.," they wrote, "offering a possible explanation for the cessation of megalith building."

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