Can Scientist Grow Plants From Martian Dust?

Anyone can imagine landing on Mars and growing their lunch — not with supplies from Earth, but using dust, air, and microbes already there. This idea has long sounded like science fiction, mainly because Mars lacks one critical ingredient, fertile soil. Its dusty surface contains minerals, but not the organic nutrients plants need to grow.

Now, researchers in Germany have found a clever solution that involves turning Martian-like dust and hardy microbes into a working fertilizer system that can produce edible plants. It’s a small but powerful step toward making Mars missions self-sustaining.

At the heart of the proposed system are cyanobacteria, often called blue-green algae. These microscopic organisms are tough enough to survive in extreme environments. More importantly, they can use carbon dioxide, plentiful in the Martian atmosphere, to grow, while also producing oxygen and pulling nutrients out of mineral-rich dust.

To show how this idea could work, the researchers recreate Martian conditions using a regolith simulant called MGS-1, which mimics the composition of Martian soil. They cultivated cyanobacteria using this artificial dust along with carbon dioxide, allowing the microbes to build up biomass using only resources that could realistically exist on Mars.

Once enough cyanobacteria were grown, the next challenge was converting them into something plants could use. The team achieved this through anaerobic fermentation — a process where microbes break down organic matter without oxygen, releasing nutrients in the system.

They fine-tuned this step carefully. Heating the biomass beforehand helped it decompose faster, and maintaining the system at around 35°C produced the best results. The researchers also calculated the right balance between cyanobacterial biomass and ammonium output, ensuring the final product had enough of this key nutrient for plant growth.

The resulting fertilizer was then tested on duckweed (Lemna sp.), a fast-growing aquatic plant rich in protein and already consumed in some parts of the world. The outcome was impressive: just one gram of dried cyanobacteria generated enough nutrients to grow 27 grams of fresh, edible plant mass.

"Despite challenges, the digestate enabled high Lemna sp. biomass yields of 27 g wet mass per gram of cyanobacterial dry mass, demonstrating its potential as a hydroponic fertilizer," the study authors added.

Moreover, as a bonus, the fermentation process produced methane—an energy-rich gas that could be captured and used as fuel, adding another layer of usefulness to the system.

This research points toward a future where astronauts could rely far less on Earth. By combining microbes, local dust, and simple biological processes, it may be possible to create closed-loop systems that produce food, oxygen, and even energy on Mars.

"You can imagine a vegetable garden on Mars that is run entirely from local resources — without bringing soil, fertilizer, or water. This self-sufficiency is important to make future Martian settlements as sustainable as possible," Tiago Ramalho, lead researcher and a PhD student at the University of Bremen, said.

However, the work is not complete. These experiments were carried out under controlled, Earth-based conditions, not the harsh realities of Mars, where radiation, low gravity, and extreme temperatures could affect the system.

Next, researchers aim to test and integrate this system with other life-support technologies, moving closer to a fully self-sufficient habitat. If it works, the same approach could also be used for sustainable farming on Earth—especially in regions where soil quality is poor.

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A 2k-Year Old Bullet With A Sarcastic Message Was Discovered

There was a 2,100-year-old sling bullet, with a sarcastic inscribed message "learn" attached, found in the holy land, on the eastern shore of the Sea of Galilee in Israel.

"Learn your lesson," "learn never to come back here," whatever the cryptic "learn" referred to, the Greek defenders of the city of Hippos delivered a message to the Hasmonean army of King Alexander Jannaeus along with a fatal blow.

Just published in the peer-reviewed journal "Palestine Exploration Quarterly" last week, the authors described the discovery of a "unique" lead sling bullet on an ancient road. Most likely, it had been launched at attackers advancing towards the city, with this menacing message in Greek: ΜΑΘΟΥ.

The find joins a group of 69 lead sling bullets uncovered at Hippos in 26 years. Whereas others feature a scorpion or a thunderbolt, this rare bullet is the first one that archaeologists have uncovered with a "sassy" reply to an army seeking to capture the city — like, "nice try."

Researchers from the University of Haifa were excavating a Roman necropolis near Hippos when they uncovered a lead bullet, about 1.3 inches long and weighing just under a pound, according to the study.

As an archaeologist on the project said, these types of sling bullets are well known in the Hellenistic period, as they were one of the most common weapons used, as they were cheap and effective, according to The Times of Israel. "But this is the first in the world to bear the inscription," as stated in Live Science.

The inscription would have sent enemies quite an impression as it was burned into the stone with molten lead, as if daring the attackers to continue their useless advance, Live Science continues. "This represents local sarcastic humor ..." wishing to "teach their enemies a lesson with a wink." So, some kind of early emoji.

Others, as The Times of Israel reports, these types of munitions in the Israel-Syrian region bore groups of thunderbolts tied up together to symbolize a sledgehammer coming from Zeus, or a trident, to align their force with the power of god, but this word "learn" intended to deliver a different tone.

Archaeologists continued that the construction of the word would suggest that the stone was speaking to the enemy army, "I’m learning," to hit you. So the bullet communicated to the enemy that they should not come here — they will be sorry that they did. Other inscriptions have been found, such as "catch," as in "catch this."

Study authors said, "The letters may be better understood in connection with another convention for sling bullet inscriptions, also attested in Iudaea-Palaestina. The sling bullets linked to the military actions of Diodotus (Tryphon) from Kasiane in the second century BCE carry sarcastic inscriptions, the sort commonly found on these projectiles, addressed to the enemy: γϵῦσαι, 'take a taste'. Even in Homer, γϵύομαι can mean 'to experience' a blow, as Weiß points out. Other examples of the mocking battle slogans are δέξαι (‘Receive this!’) and λαβέ (‘Take it!’)."

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Underwater Structure Discovered And Disappeared

When figuring out a solution, it helps to approach a problem from every possible angle. The same can be said for climate change-induced ice melt in the Antarctic, which is why the International Thwaites Glacier Collaboration (ITGC) programmed an automated underwater vehicle (AUV) — nicknamed "Ran" — to dive into the cavity of the Dotson Ice Shelf, located near Thwaites Glacier in West Antarctica.

Over the course of 27 days, the submarine traveled more than 600 miles—including 10 miles directly into the cavity itself—to both figure out the mechanics of how glaciers melt faster near strong underwater currents and glimpse the topography of this all-important ice shelf.

What the experts behind this submersible found is that the attributes along the western part of the ice shelf differ greatly with the eastern portion, which is thicker and therefore melting more slowly.

The Ran AUV also produced high resolution maps of the underside of the Dotson Ice Shelf that revealed strange tear-drop features, icy plateaus, and detailed erosion patterns. The results of the study were published in the journal Science Advances.

"We have previously used satellite data and ice cores to observe how glaciers change over time," Anna Wåhlin, the lead author of the study, said in a press statement. "By navigating the submersible into the cavity, we were able to get high resolution maps of the ice underside. It’s a bit like seeing the back of the Moon."

Unlike glaciers, which rest on land, ice shelves are actually a part of the ocean. They sort of act like a buttress that keeps ice on land from flowing into the ocean and raising sea levels, and are are vitally important to these polar ecosystem as a result. And because these shelves rest on the ocean, it’s possible to get under them.

But just because it’s possible doesn’t mean it’s easy.

The 20-foot-long Ran submersible used pulsed sound waves (advanced multibeam sonar) on the ice to map its features, but because of its subantarctic location, Wåhlin and her team couldn’t communicate with the AUV or track its movements with GPS. After 14 missions—some lasting a couple hours and others stretching longer than a day—Ran mapped around 50 square miles of ice, and the structures imaged were more complex than anyone imagined.

"The mapping has given us a lot of new data that we need to look at more closely," Wåhlin said in a press statement. "It is clear that many previous assumptions about melting of glacier undersides are falling short. Current models cannot explain the complex patterns we see. But with this method, we have a better chance of finding the answers."

One of the team’s discoveries is that the different melt rates between east and west portions of the Dotson Ice Shelf could be explained by a phenomenon known as the modified Circumpolar Deep Water (mCDW), which is when Pacific and Indian Ocean water mix with other local water masses that impact the ice base. This data was supplemented by Ran’s measurements of these underwater currents, as well as the high melting rates of fractures that run through the glacier.

Although the team’s initial mission was to study the nearby Thwaites glacier, the environment proved too difficult to access. The Dotson Ice Shelf, however, served as the perfect candidate to test the equipment and methods, according to The New York Times. These surveys were conducted in 2022, and the team returned earlier this year to see what changes to the ice shelf had occurred. That’s when Wåhlin and her team’s worst fears were realized—Ran didn’t emerge at the pre-planned rendezvous point. The team suspects that the AUV either ran aground or became the target of some curious seals.

"Although we got valuable data back, we did not get all we had hoped for. These scientific advances were made possible thanks to the unique submersible that Ran was," Wåhlin said in a press statement. "This research is needed to understand the future of Antarctica’s ice sheet, and we hope to be able to replace Ran and continue this important work."

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Bermuda's Floating Mystery Solved

For millions of years, the archipelago of Bermuda has floated, an apparent anomaly in the Atlantic.

Now, seismologists have finally solved the mystery of why this volcanic island, inactive for over 30 million years, hasn’t sunk back into the ocean.

The answer lies not in hot magma plumes, but in a massive, never-before-seen "rock raft" deep beneath the seabed. Beneath Bermuda’s oceanic crust lies a rock layer 20 kilometers (12.4 miles) thick.

"We identify features associated with a ∼20 km thick layer of rock below the oceanic crust that has not yet been reported," the researchers from the Carnegie Institution for Science in the US wrote in the study paper.

"This thick layer beneath the crust likely was emplaced when Bermuda was volcanically active 30–35 million years ago and could support the bathymetric swell," it added.

Interestingly, the study suggests that the Bermuda swell is not supported by a hot mantle plume or a deep thermal anomaly, as is commonly assumed for other large bathymetric swells.

Volcanic islands, like the famed Hawaiian chain, are typically buoyed by hot, active magma plumes pushing up the Earth’s crust.

But Bermuda’s last major eruption was roughly 30 million years ago. Geologically, it should have subsided and vanished long ago as the underlying lithosphere cooled.

Yet, the island remains, sitting atop a bathymetric swell — a large, persistent bulge in the ocean floor.

This unique structure likely accounts for Bermuda’s continued elevation, preventing its subsidence long after the volcanic activity ceased tens of millions of years ago.

Using seismic data from a permanent station on the island, researchers analyzed recordings of large global earthquakes.

By studying how seismic waves suddenly changed speed, they created a detailed image of the Earth’s layers up to 31 miles (50 km) beneath Bermuda.

Surprisingly, researchers found a unique, massive geological layer wedged between the oceanic crust and the rigid upper mantle.

Measuring 12 miles in thickness, this layer is unlike anything previously observed beneath an island located in the middle of a tectonic plate.

Moreover, this immense layer acts like a "buoyant raft" because it is less dense than the surrounding rigid upper mantle, thereby supporting the island’s elevation.

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Solar Storms Threatened Starlink Satellites

There is a team of scientists that expressed concern has warned that the space congestion problem is in danger of spiralling out of control, describing our current situation as a "House of Cards".

Individual satellites within mega-constellations, such as SpaceX’s Starlink, must perform an increasing number of collision-avoidance maneuvers each year.

According to scientists, solar storms could trigger Kessler Syndrome — a scenario in which satellites collide, leading to a cascading, destructive event in Earth’s orbit.

A Federal Communications Commission (FCC) filing in 2023 showed that SpaceX’s Starlink satellites had to make 50,000 collision avoidance maneuvers over the previous four years.

That same year, Hugh Lewis, a professor of astronautics at the University of Southampton in the UK, calculated that, if trends continued, Starlink satellites would have to perform roughly a million maneuvers every six months by 2028.

This leaves little margin for error. Ultimately, space is becoming increasingly congested, and we are edging closer to the cascading destructive scenario known as Kessler Syndrome. This could ultimately prevent spacecraft from reaching orbit, as there would be too great a risk of collision with small space debris.

Now, a team at Princeton University has warned that solar storms could be the tipping point that leads to a Kessler Syndrome scenario. In a pre-print, they explain that solar storms heat the atmosphere, increasing atmospheric drag. This means that more fuel is required to maintain orbits and perform evasive maneuvers.

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