Possible Way For Black Holes To Develop

NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope has delivered the goods again. Launched on Christmas Day, 2021, it has since sent back a storm of dazzling images and a trove of good science.

Now Webb has done it again. As NASA reports, two astronomers working with raw Webb data the space agency periodically makes available to researchers, have found evidence of a fast-growing black hole in an unexpected place and formed in an unexpected way.

What the two astronomers—Pieter van Dokkumum of Yale University and Gabriel Brammer of the University of Copenhagen—found was a pair of spiral galaxies that collided in space. Each galaxy has a black hole at its center that was already present before the collision and which emit a red glow surrounded by a ring of light and matter, giving the overall formation the shape of the infinity symbol. Van Dokkum and Brammer nicknamed the pair the Infinity Galaxy.

What surprised them was that the formation was also home to a third, larger, supermassive black hole—one with the mass of perhaps one million suns. This black hole was not in the center of one or the other galaxy as a supermassive black hole should be, but rather in the mashup of dust and gasses between them.

"Everything is unusual about this galaxy," said Van Dokkum, in an extensive description he wrote for NASA. "Not only does it look strange, but it also has this supermassive black hole that’s pulling a lot of material in."

Just how the object formed is unknown, but Van Dokkum and Brammer have two theories, called the "light seeds" and "heavy seeds" scenarios. In the light seeds version, a star explodes and its core collapses, forming a black hole with a mass of perhaps 1,000 suns. Over time, other nearby stars collapse and form their own black holes and finally all of the bodies merge to form one supermassive black hole. But that theory has a problem.

"The merger process takes time," Van Dokkum says, "and Webb has found incredibly massive black holes at incredibly early times in the universe—possibly even too early for the process to explain them." That doesn’t mean the light seeds scenario doesn’t ever play out, but it does mean that it’s not as common as astronomers may believe.

In the heavy seeds scenario a supermassive black hole forms directly from the collapse of a large gas cloud. In the case of the Infinity Galaxy, this occurred during the collision, when the galactic gas was shocked and compressed by the violence of the cosmic crackup.

"This compression might just be enough to form a dense knot, which then compressed into a black hole," Van Dokkum says. That process is also called a direct collapse black hole. Not only did a supermassive black hole form from this collision, that black hole is still growing. Radio and X-ray emissions confirmed by NASA’s Chandra X-ray Observatory and by the ground-based Very Large Array, confirm that the black hole is still pulling in prodigious amounts of dust and gas from its surroundings.

Van Dokkum and Brammer prefer the heavy seeds scenario to explain what they found since it would be such a natural result of a galactic collision. "By looking at the Infinity Galaxy, we think we have pieced together a story of how this could have happened here," says Van Dokkum. But they concede that other, less likely occurrences could explain the supermassive black hole.

For one thing, the body between the two galaxies in the Infinity Galaxy might be a runaway black hole that was ejected from its parent galaxy and is now passing through the Infinity Galaxy, and just happened to have been spotted by the Webb telescope during this relatively brief interregnum.

Alternatively, the supermassive black hole might be at the center of a third galaxy that happens to be in the foreground of the same area of sky as the Infinity Galaxy. If that third galaxy were a dwarf galaxy, it might be faint enough that only the superheated gas and dust surrounding the black hole would be visible. But the researchers don’t expect those theories to be borne out.

If the black hole were a runaway, the velocity of the gasses flowing into it would likely be different from the velocity of the gasses in the Infinity Galaxy. While they haven’t yet measured the speed of the gasses, they expect them to be similar.

The idea that the black hole lies at the center of a dwarf galaxy can be dismissed almost out of hand since dwarf galaxies typically don’t form black holes that big. All that is enough for the astronomers to claim at least a cautious victory in their discovery.

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Cutting-Edge Energy Facility Opened In China

There is a new energy storage plant featuring sodium- and lithium-ion batteries that just opened in China's Yunnan province.

The energy storage station, operated by China Southern Power Grid, is approximately 33,333 square meters in size and features over 150 battery compartments, according to CnEVPost.

The station's leader told news agency Xinhua that it has a top response speed that's six times faster than other sodium-ion batteries. It can also store up to 800,000 kilowatt-hours of electricity per day, which is enough to power approximately 270,000 households.

PV Magazine explained that the station can serve over 30 wind and solar plants to mitigate the impact of intermittent supply. The article highlighted that the power station can adapt to changing energy access and stabilize delivery.

Combined, these benefits make it easier for cities, companies, and everyday people to have an energy source they can rely on. And one they can trust to release less planet-warming pollution than dirty fuels such as coal, oil, and gas.

As the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services pointed out, a cleaner environment reduces the likelihood of respiratory and heart conditions.

While there are many ways to store energy, sodium-ion batteries are gaining popularity. CnEVPost emphasized that this is because sodium is more abundant, easier to extract, and costs less.

Additional information from Sodium Battery Hub detailed that this system can adapt to temperature variations and has a longer life cycle than lithium models.

Energy storage plays a crucial role in the transition to greener energy sources. As more solar and wind stations emerge, engineers believe that the rapid construction of lithium-sodium battery storage will be critical, per Sodium Battery Hub.

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What Is The Purpose Of The Roman Dodecahedron?

The Roman dodecahedrons have baffled archaeologists since 1739, when the first example of the 12-sided bronze object was discovered in the English Midlands. For nearly three centuries, experts and hobbyists have put forth dozens of theories as to why people treasured these items — but their purpose has never been confirmed or validated.

At least 120 examples of dodecahedrons have been discovered across the northwestern provinces of the Roman Empire. All date to the late second to late fourth centuries, and their general appearance is the same, according to classical archaeologist Michael Guggenberger, who has published several studies on the objects.

In a 2000 study, Guggenberger wrote that the basic shape is a regular or pentagonal dodecahedron: 12 pentagons form the faces of the hollow shape, and they meet at 20 corners. Each corner of a Roman dodecahedron is topped with a small sphere, and each pentagonal face has a hole of varying diameter. The dodecahedrons range from 1.6 to 3.9 inches (4 to 10 centimeters) tall and weigh 1 to 20 ounces (30 to 580 grams), with exceptionally thin walls. No writing has been found on any dodecahedron.

Because these dodecahedrons have been found in Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Great Britain, Hungary, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and Switzerland — but not in Italy — Guggenberger views them as "Gallo-Roman products" with a possible origin in the Celtic tribes of the Roman Empire. But there are no historical records or depictions of them in ancient art, so the origin and purpose of the dodecahedrons have been lost.

Archaeologists have recovered dodecahedrons from the graves of men and women, in coin hoards and even in refuse heaps, so a blanket explanation for their use has not been found. But many researchers have attempted to solve the puzzle, suggesting that dodecahedrons may have been used as weapons, decorations, candlestick holders, range finders, measurement devices, children's toys, dice, craftsman's samples or spools for knitting gloves.

Of the 50 or more theories, Guggenberger wrote, most can now be ruled out or considered highly improbable. The primary explanation he favors is symbolic, with a connection to the philosophy of ancient Greek thinkers Plato and Pythagoras.

In Platonic-Pythagorean symbolism, four solid shapes were associated with four elements — tetrahedrons with fire, octahedrons with air, icosahedrons with water, and hexahedrons with earth. And, as the fifth regular solid, "the dodecahedron served as an all-encompassing symbol representing the universe," Guggenberger wrote in a 2013 study. In the second century A.D., thinkers like Plutarch resurrected the earlier idea of the dodecahedron as a symbolic connection to the heavens and the universe, Guggenberger wrote, and that may have influenced Celtic peoples in the Roman Empire.

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Peru's Sacred City Of Caral Unveiled

The renowned site of Caral, one of Peru's most important archaeological areas, has a new jewel in its crown after eight years of excavations, intense research and conservation work.

It is called Peñico, and experts consider it to be a "city of social integration" because of its strategic location, which connected the populations of the Supe and Huaura valleys, but also because of the large number of homes, public buildings and ceremonial spaces it housed.

Last Saturday (12 July), the Caral Archaeological Zone will organise the first Peñico Raymi, a replica of a traditional Andean festival, to inaugurate the new archaeological site.

Although the Caral culture developed mainly between 3000 and 1800 BC (which, given its antiquity, places it in a society with a development and chronology comparable to Ancient Egypt), it's understood the city of Peñico began to develop a little later, around 1800 and 1500 BC.

The Caral are considered the oldest of the pre-Hispanic civilisations in the Americans, which went into steep decline around 1800 BC.

It is possible that the prestige achieved by Peñico society in the valley, coupled with its role as a hub in the exchange network, was linked to the extraction and circulation of hematite. This mineral, used to make a red pigment, had great symbolic importance within Andean cosmology.

Among the 18 constructions discovered during the excavations and now on display to the public, a ceremonial hall stands out: "We don't know its exact limits," explained Mauro Ordóñez, head of the Penico archaeological site. "This building continues to extend from east to west. The most interesting thing is the composition of several antechambers: one of them stands out for having on its sides the representation, in friezes, of pututus".

Pututus are objects also known as churus (the Quechua word for a mollusc, shell or snail). They are wind instruments originally made from a seashell that was large enough to emit a powerful sound. Ordóñez considers this to be evidence of close relations with other pre-Columbian groups in northern Peru.

The sacred city of Caral-Supe, located less than 200 kilometres north of Lima, the Peruvian capital, is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Peñico, in particular, was built 600 metres above sea level on a geological terrace parallel to the Supe River and surrounded by hills that reach a height of 1,000 metres.

Its Caralan builders chose this strategic location for multiple purposes: to enhance the monumentality of their buildings, to protect themselves from floods or landslides and, as evidenced by findings such as the representation of musical instruments, and to promote interaction and exchange with other civilizations.

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How Big Are The Roman Defenders Near Hadrian's Wall?

An ancient Roman mystery is afoot in the rolling hills of northern Britain.

Archaeologists have unearthed a stash of unusually large shoes at the ruins of a first-century military fort along Hadrian’s Wall, a 73-mile (117-kilometer) stone barrier that famously shielded the Roman Empire’s northwestern perimeter from foreign invaders. The discovery is raising new questions about the lives and origins of the fort’s inhabitants.

The giant leather soles were found at Magna Fort in May among 34 pieces of footwear, including work boots and baby-sized shoes, that are helping to paint a picture of the 4,000 men, women and children who once lived in and around the English site just south of the Scottish border.

Eight of the shoes are over 11.8 inches (30 centimeters) in length — a US men’s size 13.5 or greater based on Nike’s size chart — making them larger than average by today’s standard and sparking suspicions that unusually tall troops may have guarded this particular fortress at the empire’s edge.

By contrast, the average ancient shoe found at a neighboring Roman fort was closer to a US men’s size 8, according to a news release about the discovery.

"When the first large shoe started to come out of the ground, we were looking for many explanations, like maybe it’s their winter shoes, or people were stuffing them, wearing extra socks," recalled Rachel Frame, a senior archaeologist leading the excavation. "But as we found more of them and different styles, it does seem to be that these (were) just people with really large feet."

As digging continues at Magna Fort, Frame said she hopes further investigation could answer who exactly wore these giant shoes. A basic sketch of the site’s past is just starting to come together.

When the Magna Fort was in use, multiple different Roman military troops and their families moved into the site every few years after it was built around AD 85, archaeologists suspect.

Inscriptions on the fort’s walls and altars recount settlements of Hamian archers from what is now Syria, Dalmatian mountain soldiers from Croatia and Serbia, and Batavians from the Netherlands, but the length of time each group stayed at the stronghold remains unknown.

Likely following orders from the Roman army, the troops would often leave the fort for distant regions and in their haste, ditch shoes, clothing and other belongings in the surrounding trenches, Frame explained.

Additionally, new occupants requiring more space would have built larger structures on top of the existing fort, packing rubble and clay between the walls and trapping any belongings left by the previous tenants, Frame said.

"As archaeologists, we like trash," said Dr. Elizabeth Greene, an associate professor of classics at the University of Western Ontario. "You get those habitational layers where things were just left behind, maybe forgotten about, and that tells us more about the space."

Greene has studied thousands of shoes collected from the nearby Vindolanda Roman Fort, which has been excavated since the 1970s and is among the most well-studied of the Roman forts along Hadrian’s Wall.

The recently discovered Magna shoes share some similarities with those in the Vindolanda Fort collection, said Greene, who was not involved in the Magna excavation process, but has viewed the artifacts.

For one, the soles of the shoes from both sites are made from thick layers of cowhide leather held together with iron hobnails, she explained. While only a couple of the shoes discovered at Magna have some of the upper portions still intact, the Vindolanda Fort shoe styles include closed military boots and open work boots, as well as sneaker-like shoes reaching just below the ankle and sandals with leather fasteners.

It’s likely that the leather soles of the Magna shoes survived thousands of years in the ground thanks to ancient tanning techniques that used crushed up vegetative matter to create a water and heat resistant coating, Greene said. Testing is still underway to confirm this hypothesis.

The length of the extra-large Magna shoes suggests the original owners may have been exceptionally tall, Greene said. At Vindolanda, only 16 out of the 3,704 shoes collected measured over 11.8 inches (30 centimeters).

Ancient Roman military manuals often described the ideal recruit as being only 5 feet, 8 inches or 5 feet, 9 inches in height, according to Rob Collins, a professor of frontier archaeology at Newcastle University in England. But the soldiers stationed around Hadrian’s Wall came from all around the far-reaching empire, bringing a wide diversity of physical traits to their settlements, he said.

Still, why Magna specifically might have needed troops of towering stature remains unclear.

To piece together the shoe owners’ identities, researchers will examine the Magna shoes for any signs of wear, Frame said. Any foot impressions left in the shoes could be used to model the feet of the original wearers.

Linking the shoes to real human remains, however, could prove difficult. For one, the Romans near Hadrian’s Wall generally cremated their dead, using a headstone to mark the graves, Collins said. Any bones that remain around the settlements are likely from enemy, illegal or accidental burials.

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What Generates Your Brain Consciousness?

Many believed that the human brain is similar to a computer. But in reality, that’s selling the brain pretty short.

While comparing neurons and transistors is a convenient metaphor (and not completely out of left field), the brain is ultra-efficient, its energy is renewable, and it’s capable of computational feats that even the most advanced computer can’t pull off. In many ways, the inner workings of the human brain make up an unknown computational frontier.

Although your brain is superior to your laptop—or even the world’s most advanced supercomputer—these machines run on classical physics. But there’s another kind of a computer out there: a quantum one.

The idea that the human brain contains quantum properties isn't new. In fact, the British physicist Roger Penrose and the American anesthesiologist Stuart Hameroff first suggested the controversial concept back in the 90s, with their "orchestrated objective reduction" model of a consciousness. Since then, many pieces of evidence have at least hinted that, while the brain may not be a full-fledged quantum computer, some quantum properties may in fact help generate consciousness.

Now, a new study from Shanghai University submits yet another piece of evidence to the neurological court—that one particular process of the human brain exhibits behavior akin to quantum entanglement, a phenomenon when two particles (usually photons) become inextricably linked even across vast distances. This phenomenon confounded even the most brilliant of minds, including Albert Einstein, who called quantum entanglement "spooky action at a distance."

The study, published this month in the journal Physics Review E, suggests that a fatty material called myelin that surrounding the nerve cell’s axon—the fiber that transmits electrical impulses to other nerves or body tissues—provides an environment in which the entanglement of photons is possible. This could potentially explain the rise of cognition, and especially synchronization, which is essential for information processing and rapid response.

"Consciousness within the brain hinges on the synchronized activities of millions of neurons, but the mechanism responsible for orchestrating such synchronization remains elusive," the paper reads. "The results indicate that the cylindrical cavity formed by a myelin sheath can facilitate spontaneous photon emission from the vibrational modes and generate a significant number of entangled photon pairs."

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Why Statues Of The Beloved Egyptian Queen Were Smashed?

The beloved Egyptian queen Hatshepsut is a prominent political figure in global history because she was a powerful female pharaoh, which was exceptionally rare.

For 100 years, the popular theory held that, after her death, her nephew, who took over the throne, sought revenge, "purposefully smashing all her statues to erase her from public memory." Now, a new study finds that's not quite the case.

Although many statues of Hatshepsut were intentionally broken, the reason behind their destruction has nothing to do with her gender or even blotting out her existence, an Egyptologist says. Rather, Hatshepsut's statues were broken to "deactivate" them and eliminate their supposed supernatural powers, according to a study published on 24 June in the journal Antiquity.

Hatshepsut (who ruled circa 1473 to 1458 B.C.) was a pharaoh known for commissioning a beautiful temple built at Deir el-Bahri, near ancient Thebes (modern-day Luxor), and for ordering a successful voyage from Egypt to a land known as "Punt," whose precise location is now a matter of debate.

She was the wife and half sister of pharaoh Thutmose II (reign circa 1492 to 1479 B.C.) and was supposed to act as regent for her stepson Thutmose III. However, rather than serving as regent, she became a pharaoh in her own right, with Thutmose III acting as a co-regent who had limited power.

After Hatshepsut died, many of her statues were intentionally broken, including at the site of Deir el-Bahri, where archaeologists in the 1920s and 1930s found broken remains of her statues buried in pits.

It was believed that these were broken on the orders of Thutmose III after Hatshepsut died, as a form of retribution. However, the new study suggests that these statues were in fact "ritually deactivated" in the same manner that statues belonging to other pharaohs were.

In the study, Jun Yi Wong, a doctoral candidate in Egyptology at the University of Toronto, examined archival records of the statues from Deir el-Bahri that were found in the 1920s and 1930s. Wong found that the statues were not smashed in the face and didn't have their inscriptions destroyed. Instead, they were broken at their neck, waist and feet — something seen in statues of other Egyptian pharaohs during a process that modern-day Egyptologists call "ritual deactivation."

The ancient Egyptians saw royal statues "as powerful and perhaps even living entities," Wong told Live Science in an email. When a pharaoh died, it was common for the ancient Egyptians to deactivate their statues by breaking them at their weak points, or the neck, waist and feet, Wong noted.

"Deposits of deactivated statues have been found at multiple sites in Egypt and Sudan," Wong said. "One of the best-known finds in the history of Egyptian archaeology is the Karnak Cachette, where hundreds of statues of pharaohs — from across centuries — were found in a single deposit. The vast majority of the statues have been 'deactivated.'"

This isn't to say that Hatshepsut wasn't a target of political persecution after her death. "There is no doubt that Hatshepsut did suffer a campaign of persecution — at many monuments throughout Egypt, her images and names have been systematically hacked out," Wong said. "We know that this campaign of persecution was initiated by Thutmose III, but we are not exactly sure why."

The fact that her statues at Deir el-Bahri were deactivated normally while images and inscriptions of her at other sites were violently attacked suggests that the persecution she experienced may not have been for personal reasons.

Statues of other pharaohs also underwent ritual deactivation, Wong wrote. The fact that the statues of Hatshepsut at Deir el-Bahri were deactivated normally while statues of her at other sites were more violently attacked suggests that Thutmose III may have felt that he had to persecute Hatshepsut for political reasons, such as concerns about her reign from his supporters.

"Early Egyptologists assumed that Thutmose III must have harboured intense hatred towards Hatshepsut, but this is unlikely to be accurate," Wong said. "The treatment of the statues, for example, suggests that Thutmose III was motivated by ritualistic and practical factors, rather than any personal animosity."

Thutmose III "would have been influenced by political considerations — such as whether Hatshepsut's reign was detrimental to his legacy as a pharaoh," Wong said.

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Rebuilding Humanity By Synthesizing Genome

The ethical duality of scientific discovery is nothing new. The most dramatic example is, of course, splitting the atom, which delivered a promising new energy source as well as weapons of mass destruction. A more recent example—the internet—was an unprecedented way to access the sum total of human knowledge, and it also became an insidious vector of mass misinformation.

Now scientists are embarking on a new scientific journey, one that could bring unimaginable benefits for human health while also providing the tools for immense destruction: synthesizing the human genome.

Over the next five years, the Synthetic Human Genome Project (SynHG), funded by the world’s largest medical charity Wellcome Trust (which was also a partner of the Human Genome Project completed in 2003), will work with scientists from Cambridge, Kent, Manchester, Oxford, and Imperial College London to build the foundational tools necessary to rebuild the human genome from scratch. This is different than gene editing, which typically involves much smaller changes to an organism’s original DNA.

"With recent technological advances, the SynHG project is at the forefront of one of the most exciting areas of scientific research," Wellcome's Michael Dunn said in a press statement. "Through creating the necessary tools and methods to synthesize a human genome, we will answer questions about our health and disease that we cannot even anticipate yet, in turn transforming our understanding of life and wellbeing."

In an interview with the BBC, Julian Sale, a member of the Molecular Biology in Cambridge who is part of the study, said that a synthetic human genome could improve the lives of humans as they age. This focus on healthspan—improving the quality of life for the years we do have—over lifespan is something medical professionals have been urging for years, and a synthetic human genome could address a wide variety of maladies that impact our quality of life in old age.

And then, there’s the other side of the scientific coin.

While a synthetic genome could help generate disease-resistant cells or repair damaged organs or the immune system in general, the technology could also be used as a highly efficient biological weapon if it fell into the wrong hands. That’s why SynHG will also develop social science programs that will examine the technology’s ethical, legal, and social implications.

"The genie is out of the bottle," Edinburgh University genetic scientist Bill Earnshaw told BBC News. "We could have a set of restrictions now, but if an organization who has access to appropriate machinery decided to start synthesising anything, I don’t think we could stop them."

When it comes to synthetic biology, the genie has actually been out of that proverbial bottle for a while now. In 2002, scientists in the U.S. first synthesized a viral genome, and since then, scientists have increased genomic complexity by synthesizing a bacterium in 2008 and a yeast organism in 2017. Of course, the human genome is leagues beyond these simple synthetic reconstructions, which is why the project scientists estimate that it could take decades to complete.

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Why Life Doesn't Exist In Mars?

Why is Mars barren and uninhabitable, while life has always thrived here on our relatively similar planet Earth? Interesting questions with very few answers.

A discovery made by a NASA rover has offered a clue for this mystery, new research said last 2 July, suggesting that while rivers once sporadically flowed on Mars, it was doomed to mostly be a desert planet.

Mars is thought to currently have all the necessary ingredients for life except for perhaps the most important one: liquid water.

However the red surface is carved out by ancient rivers and lakes, showing that water once flowed on our nearest neighbour.

There are currently several rovers searching Mars for signs of life that could have existed back in those more habitable times, millions of years ago.

Earlier this year, NASA's Curiosity rover discovered a missing piece in this puzzle: rocks that are rich in carbonate minerals.

These "carbonates" -- such as limestone on Earth -- act as a sponge for carbon dioxide, pulling it in from the atmosphere and trapping it in rock.

A new study, published in the journal Nature, modelled exactly how the existence of these rocks could change our understanding of Mars's past.

Lead study author Edwin Kite, a planetary scientist at the University of Chicago and a member of the Curiosity team, told AFP it appeared there were "blips of habitability in some times and places" on Mars.

But these "oases" were the exception rather than the rule.

On Earth, carbon dioxide in the atmosphere warms the planet. Over long timescales, the carbon becomes trapped in rocks such as carbonates. Then volcanic eruptions spew the gas back into the atmosphere, creating a well-balanced climate cycle supportive of consistently running water.

However Mars has a "feeble" rate of volcanic outgassing compared to Earth, Kite said. This throws off the balance, leaving Mars much colder and less hospitable.

According to the modelling research, the brief periods of liquid water on Mars were followed by 100 million years of barren desert -- a long time for anything to survive.

It is still possible that there are pockets of liquid water deep underground on Mars we have not yet found, Kite said.

NASA's Perseverance Rover, which landed on an ancient Martian delta in 2021, has also found signs of carbonates at the edge of dried-up lake, he added.

Next, the scientists hope to discover more evidence of carbonates.

Kite said the best proof would be returning rock samples from the Martian surface back to Earth -- both the United States and China are racing to do this in the next decade.

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Genome Sequencing Revealed Ancient Egyptian Ancestry

Considered as a major breakthrough, researchers have sequenced the entire genome of an ancient Egyptian person, revealing unprecedented insight about the ancestry of a man who lived during the time when the first pyramids were built.

The man, whose remains were found buried in a sealed clay pot in Nuwayrat, a village south of Cairo, lived sometime between 4,500 and 4,800 years ago, which makes his DNA the oldest ancient Egyptian sample yet extracted. The researchers concluded that 80 percent of his genetic material came from ancient people in North Africa while 20 percent traced back to people in West Asia and the Mesopotamia region.

Their findings, published last 2 July in the journal Nature, offer new clues to suggest there were ancient cultural connections between ancient Egypt and societies within the Fertile Crescent, an area that includes modern-day Iraq (once known as Mesopotamia), Iran and Jordan. While scientists have suspected these connections, before now the only evidence for them was archaeological, rather than genetic.

The scientists also studied the man’s skeleton to determine more about his identity and found extensive evidence of hard labor over the course of a long life.

"Piecing together all the clues from this individual’s DNA, bones and teeth have allowed us to build a comprehensive picture," said lead study author Dr. Adeline Morez Jacobs, visiting research fellow at England’s Liverpool John Moores University, in a statement. "We hope that future DNA samples from ancient Egypt can expand on when precisely this movement from West Asia started."

Pottery and other artifacts have suggested that Egyptians may have traded goods and knowledge across neighboring regions, but genetic evidence of just how closely different ancient civilizations mingled has been harder to pin down because conditions such as heat and humidity quickly degrade DNA, according to the study authors. This man’s remains, however, were unusually well-preserved in their burial container, and the scientists were able to extract DNA from one of the skeleton’s teeth.

While the findings only capture the genetic background of one person, experts said additional work could help answer an enduring question about the ancestry of the first Egyptians who lived at the beginning of the longest-lasting known civilization.

The man, who died during a time of transition between Egypt’s Early Dynastic and Old Kingdom periods, was not mummified before burial because it was not yet standard practice — and that likely preserved his DNA, the researchers said.

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"Solid Refrigerant" Offers An Air-Con Revolution

When you look at the soft, waxy "solid refrigerant" being investigated in a UK laboratory, it doesn't look very exciting, but its unusual properties promise an air-conditioning revolution that could eliminate the need for greenhouse gases.

The substance's temperature can vary by more than 50 degrees Celsius (90 degrees Fahrenheit) under pressure, and unlike the gases currently used in appliances, it does not leak.

"They don't contribute to global warming, but also they are potentially more energy efficient," Xavier Moya, a professor of materials physics at the University of Cambridge, told AFP.

Approximately two billion air-conditioner units are in use worldwide, and their number is increasing as the planet warms.

Between leaks and energy consumption, the emissions associated with them are also increasing each year, according to the International Energy Agency (IEA).

Moya has been studying the properties of these plastic crystals in his laboratory at the prestigious UK university for 15 years.

On his work surface, a large red and grey machine, topped with a cylinder, tests how the temperature of a substance changes under pressure.

The aim is to identify the best refrigerants among this class of materials, which are already used by the chemical industry and are relatively easy to obtain, even if the exact composition of the crystals eventually selected remains secret.

The phenomenon is invisible to the naked eye, but these crystals are composed of molecules that spin on their own axis.

When the substance is squeezed, that movement stops and the energy is dissipated in the form of heat.

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Eryops' Skull Looks Like From "Toy Story" Character

Paleontologist Andre LuJan had an assist from nature with his latest exciting fossil find. Heavy rains helped expose a nearly complete skull of an enormous ancient salamander-like creature in a quarry in northern central Texas. And while it looks a bit like an anxious T. rex from a beloved children’s film, this creature wasn’t a dinosaur.

LuJan found the Eryops megacephalus, a large, semi-aquatic predator amphibian with a large noggin that lived 280 million years ago. The climate at this time was a bit variable, but there were some long periods when desert-like conditions in present day New Mexico and Texas became a more humid and swamp-like environment.

"Eryops is an apex predator (amphibian) from the Permian period," LuJan, who is also the director of the Texas Through Time Fossil Museum, tells Popular Science. "They could grow up to six feet long (maybe more but this is based on known fossils)."

These enormous salamander-like creatures weighed in at upwards of 200 to 400 pounds and likely would have eaten anything it could fit in its large mouth. Its head was designed for aquatic or semi-aquatic ambush predators, similar to living alligators and crocodiles.

"We can tell by the design of their skull that they were ambush predators, eyes on top of the head along with nostrils to conceal the body while they lay in wait."

Eryops likely didn’t have the ability to chew, so would have eaten its prey whole or torn it into pieces.

Paleontologists have uncovered their remains along estuaries, streams, or other bodies of water that could support hunting and breeding. Fossils of animals like it have been found in rocks dating back to the Permian in what was once the supercontinent Pangea. Eryops is also a member of a larger group of amphibians which includes present day frogs, toads, and salamanders. Finding a complete skull like this one is exciting and rare, since they will often collapse under pressure over the millions of years it takes for the bones to fossilize. Having a more complete skull offers up a more full picture of the animal’s life. More skulls also helps because "in paleontology, sample size is everything." A wider pool of fossils to choose from enables more careful and accurate comparisons, which can tell us more about their evolution. "In some cases finding pathological growths can teach us about ancient diseases and possible predation and interaction with other predators," says LuJan.

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